DIGITAL IMAGES ON SOCIAL MEDIA AND PROLIFERATION OF FAKE NEWS ON COVID-19 IN KANO, NIGERIA

Misinformation becomes ram2ant in the digital age and social media 2rovide 2eo2le with the o22ortunities for engaging more actively in society. Thee objectives of the study are: (i) to ascertain the extent to which residents of Kano have been ex2osed to digital images on Covid-19 that ofteen accom2any fake news in social media; (ii) to establish the extent to which residents of Kano are influuenced by fake news on Covid-19 with images; (iii) to finnd out the factors that ofteen lead to the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano; (iv) to ascertain the social media 2latforms mostly used in s2reading fake news about Covid-19 in the state. Theeoretically, Technological Determinism and Perce2tion theories were ado2ted to analyze these issues. A Positivist a22roach to data generation and analysis was ado2ted using the survey method. Two local governments were selected for the study: Tarauni and Kano Munici2al. Tarauni local government area had the highest number of the Covid-19 cases, while Kano Munici2al had the lowest number. Thee 2o2ulation of the study consist of 593,087 with a sam2le size of 400 res2ondents derived from Taro Yamane’s sam2le size 2rediction table. Thee res2ondents were reached through cluster sam2ling. A total of 400 co2ies of questionnaires were administered to res2ondents in Tarauni and Kano Munici2al. However, only 385 co2ies, which re2resent (96%), were retrieved and found usable for the study as the remaining 15 were not returned. Thee study found that Kano residents were signifincantly ex2osed to digital images that ofteen accom2any fake news in social media. Theey read news online every day, 2refer news accom2anied by images, share and like news online. Thee study also found that Kano residents are influuenced by fake news with digital images on Covid-19 to a very great extent, es2ecially on Facebook. Factors res2onsible for 2roliferation of fake news on social media include: 2erce2tion or instinct, eagerness to be the finrst to share images and lack of knowledge about image verifincation tools. Thee study concludes that ignorance and the old belief that 2ictures do not lie were res2onsible for this.


INTRODUCTION
According to a re2ort from the Center for Countering Digital Hate (2020) fake news is one of the trending words not only in the fineld of communication but across other 2rofessions. Hundreds of 2osts s2reading misinformation about Covid-19 are being 2ublished online. According to the re2ort, 649 2osts were re2orted on Facebook and Twittper, including false cures, anti-vaccination 2ro2aganda and cons2iracy theories around 5G. 90% remained visible online afteerwards without any warnings attpached. Thee coronavirus 2andemic has forced 2eo2le to take a ste2 back from daily routines. As 2eo2le s2end more and more time at home, they increasingly rely on the internet, working remotely or video calling on relatives and friends. During this time of uncertainty, like the Covid-19 2eriod, 2eo2le's engagement with information that is trustworthy is more im2ortant than ever. Fake news re2resents a disturbing media dilemma in the 21 st Century.
Nigeria, like every other country in the world, suffeers from the s2read of fake news. Theis is evident in the increase in its 2revalence in the lexicon and 2ractice in society. Fake news do not exist in texts alone. Images ofteen accom-2any fake news so as to enhance their believability . Also, fake news and hate s2eeches are not mutually exclusive.  states that the anonymity of online s2aces, the attpem2t to create humour and the habit of internet trolling (hate s2eech) ofteen contributes to fake news or hoaxes. Furthermore,  notes that both hate s2eech and fake news thrive on re2etition and circulation on social media.  states that hate s2eech, disinformation and fake news have something in common. He describes them as a looming danger because they are all ca2able of destabilising and inciting 2eo2le to violence and weakening the 2eo2le's confindence.
Technological develo2ments in the fineld of internet im2act the large grou2 of 2eo2le that uses this media source to obtain health information. Social media is such a new develo2ment that drastically changes websites from a static source to a many-to-many communication channel. Thee use of informative communication technology, through social media es2ecially, has transcended the use of words only to the creation of false images on Covid-19. Many users of social networking sites do so without regard to the issues of decency, decorum or ethical consideration . One signifincant effeect of this develo2ment is that Nigerian citizens can scarcely avoid noticing the 2resence of these digital images. Thee images are such a ubiquitous and unavoidable 2art of the networked social environment of coronavirus cam2aign on the Internet that forces 2eo2le to become if not 2roducers or distributors, then at least consumers of these digital images (2020). Galactica Media: Journal of Media Studies. 2021. No 1 | ISSN: 2658-7734 New Media andHuman Communication | Doi: http2s://doi.org/10.4653 39/gmd.v3i1.111 In Northern Nigeria, distrust jeo2ardizes the res2onse to coronavirus. On A2ril 11, 2020, exactly one month afteer World Health Organisation (WHO) declared Covid-19 2andemic, Kano State confinrmed its finrst 2ositive Covid-19 case. In the same month, the state witnessed what was described as mysterious deaths, claiming hundreds of lives including the Emir of Rano and seven Professors from Bayero University, Kano ("BUK VC Not Positive, Says Kano, " 2020).
Hajara Ibrahim alias Umma, 47, is a mourning mother of finve who lost her husband amidst the mysterious deaths in Hotoro, Nassarawa local government of Kano State. According to the re2ort by Nigeria Health Watch (2020) initially, Umma did not believe that Covid-19 was real. "Haven't you heard what the scholars said?" asked Umma, in a regretful tone, as she referred to a video she watched on her son Abdul's Smart2hone. In the video, a bearded man was saying, "Covid-19 is a scam and a grand 2lot against Muslims". Abdul said he got the video from a WhatsA22 grou2 to which he belonged (Nigeria Health Watch, 2020).
In a state like Kano, which was once the e2icentre of the disease in Northern Nigeria, the risks of fake news and misinformation s2reads widely on social media and a majority of the victims could be local community 2eo-2le like Umma, who usually do not even have direct access to this misinformation. Yet, it has sha2ed their thoughts to develo2 beliefs like "Covid-19 is a scam"; "Government is using it to generate money", "it will not survive Kano's hot temperature", "it affeects and kills only the old", which can make them rebuffe Government guidelines for 2reventing s2read of the virus.
Thee mysterious deaths in A2ril during the height of the Covid-19 2andemic s2arked a fluurry of confusion and denial by government officcials. As social media narratives began to 2iece together 2ossible reasons for the s2ike in deaths, dis-and misinformation were driven by ethno-religious tensions in the state, es2ecially on the health status of individual, 2reventive measures, vaccine, etc. In this context, it has been difficcult to gain a full understanding of the reasons behind the mass deaths in Kano State. To com2licate mattpers, a series of forced relocations of almajiri from Kano, Northern Nigeria back to their states of origin s2arked concern about the 2ossible ex2ortation of the coronavirus to other 2arts of the country ("BUK VC Not Positive, Says Kano, " 2020).
Similarly, there was a false re2ort with the image of the chairman of the "State Government Covid-19 Funds Raising Committpee", the former Vice Chancellor of Bayero University, Kano, Prof. Muhammad Yahuza Bello where he was said to have been tested 2ositive to Covid-19. Thee Commissioner for Information, Mallam Mohammed Garba, said in a statement that the re2ort was false. He said, "Thee fake re2ort was orchestrated to mislead the 2ublic, as the chairman is not sus2ected to have contracted the virus, let alone testing 2ositive to the virus" (2020).
As misinformation becomes increasingly ram2ant in the digital age, social media 2rovides 2eo2le with the o22ortunities for engaging more actively in the society; but among its constraints, it am2lifines misinformation, which is exacerbated by the algorithms of online 2latforms that make 2o2ular content visible, regardless of whether it is reliable. Theeir algorithms, in addition, ex-2ose users 2rimarily to information that is aligned with what they like and are interested in, which is referred to as the 2roblem of the finlter bubble. Theis has created a knowledge vacuum in the literature, which the study intends to finll u2. Thee meaning and extent of these issues in social media will be further ex-2lained below.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Thee most credible way of ascertaining the credibility of a 2iece of information is by scrutinizing the accom2anying images . Theis refluects the long-held axioms that "seeing is believing" and "a 2icture is worth a thousand words". However, since 2rogression in digital imaging now 2ermits the mani2ulation of 2hotogra2hs, videos and even audio recordings, there is no longer the guarantee of the authenticity of such texts, which may have been altered or outright be fake re2resentation of the news stories that they should corroborate. Theis 2oses a huge challenge of credibility and trust in channels of communication since relying on them in every sector of society is undermined.
According to  a signifincant amount of fake stories being shared online were not writtpen texts but images and memes because 2eo2le 2refer images to words. Besides, some individuals do not even believe the con-ce2t of 'fake news. ' Consequently, accurate and factual news has at times been misconstrued as fake, while fake and inaccurate news has been acce2ted as factual news es2ecially when it is backed u2 by images that seem authentic . In Kano State, there have been a 2lethora of re2risal attpacks based on fake news on Covid-19 among residents of Kano, accom2anied by images. Theis has created a ga2 in the body of knowledge in the existing literature on the subject mattper, which the current study aims to finll by ex2loring the influuence of digital images on the 2ro2agation of fake news among residents of Kano in 2020.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
(i) To ascertain the extent to which residents of Kano have been ex-2osed to digital images on Covid-19 that ofteen accom2any fake news in social media. (ii) To establish the extent to which residents of Kano are influuenced by fake news on Covid-19 with images. (iii) To finnd out the factors that ofteen lead to the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano. (iv) To ascertain the social media 2latforms mostly used in s2reading fake news about Covid-19 in the state.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Thee 2roblem statement informed the following basic tools of inquiry for the study: (i) To what extent have the residents of Kano been ex2osed to digital images on Covid-19 that ofteen accom2any fake news in social media? (ii) To what extent have residents of Kano been influuenced with fake news on Covid-19 with images? (iii) What are the factors that ofteen lead to the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano? (iv) Which of the social media 2latforms is mostly used in s2reading fake news with images on Covid-19 in Kano?

THEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
Digital Images According to Osuagwu (2020) digital images are two-dimensional images re2resented in a binary form. Theey are made of 2icture elements known as 2ixel, which is the short form of 2icture elements, ofteen organised in rectangular forms. Theey are also made u2 of vector or gra2hic images, which are mathematically definned by com2uter softeware or 2rograms that range from 2ower 2oint, logos, diagrams and other gra2hics images for 2romotional or illustrative 2ur2oses. It is a re2resentation of a real image as a set of numbers that can be stored and handled by a digital com2uter.
Thee 2ro2erties of the 2ixel of an image are brightness and colour. Digital images have some advantages over traditional images because of the ability to convert and transfer images from one medium to another and the ability to change them according to one's needs using 2hoto editing softeware like Pho-tosho2, Photo 2aint and the Gim2. Users of these can change the colour, brightness, delete unwanted visible objects, move others and merge objects from several images and create new images (2020).

Digital Images in News
Thee role of images in news has been viewed with mixed feelings. Scholars like McQuaail (2011) established that images enhance the credibility of news. He noted that 2roviding access to information or access to the site of crisis, visual images are very im2ortant in handling crisis news. Theey have the 2ower to sha2e the news and 2eo2le's 2erce2tion. It is because of the assum2tion that 2ictures are more de2endable than words.  argued that the ability of images to convince and validate truth has withered, further hindering the trustworthiness of the digital media. Theey note that: Many so2histicated digital technologies and 2hoto-editing softeware like Adobe Photosho2 have made the mani2ulation of images a fair 2ractice. As a result, digital images are becoming 2rone to forgeries and hence trust in digital images has been eroded. Digital forgery is now a nightmare to individuals (e.g. fake images of celebrities and 2ublic fingures), societies (fake images targeting religion or race), journalism, scientifinc 2ublications (2014, 2. 878). Abdulrauf-Salau (2013, 2. 199) observed that news in social media is 2re-dis2osed to false information about individuals and government. He notes thus: "In Nigeria, there has been rumours of false information about deaths and bomb threats circulated through Twittper, which eventually turned out to be hoaxes". Fake images have been used to 2ro2agate certain stereoty2es like racism, religious and ethnic bigotry, to mention a few.  corroborates that the negative role of digital 2latforms have aided the dissemination of intentional hoaxes and misinformation. She noted that 2hotos of 2eo2le far away from the scenes of crisis are 2osted and even fake 2rofinles of victims are ofteen circulated in social media.

UNDERSTANDING NEWS AND FAKE NEWS
Asemah (2018) sees news as the account of a timely and unusual event in the society. Theis definnition seems limiting because as observed by Fry (2017) the current digital environment as characterised by 2roliferating social media have changed the traditional notion of news to an account of an unusual event. McQuaail (2011) sees news as the main form in which current information about 2ublic events is carried by media of all kinds. Although, it is obvious through the definnitions given here that one of the distinctive features of news is currency, the lattper definnition ca2tures the fact that news is information conveyed on diffeerent kinds of media. It sufficces to 2resume that news is information about events that are currently ha22ening or that have ha22ened recently.  suggests that the traditional notion of news is doomed, going by the im2ositions of new media technologies on the news 2rocesses, for exam2le the colla2se of gatekee2ers, or the blurring lines of distinction between news, advertisement and entertainment.
Fry's assum2tion ca2tures the constantly evolving status of news in this digital age by embodying the conce2t of 2artici2ation as a vital factor. News is, therefore, seen as a kind of sharing in a connected (digital) s2ace where news is constructed in words, sounds and images not only on social media sites or blogs but on government-controlled or influuenced or non-2rofint sites. According to , 2artici2ants in this connected (digital) s2ace include: traditional news organisations, social networking sites, amateur journalists and everyone and everything. Fake news is the deliberate fabrication of information to deceive 2eo2le with the aim of misleading others into believing falsehood and doubting confinrmable actualities . A lot of finctitious stories are masquerading as news and it is sur2rising that 2eo2le do not understand the 2henomenon, its origin and the threat it 2oses to the society.  note the danger of fake news and state that fake news can continue to affeect the attpitudes of those ex2osed to long afteer it has been debunked and withdrawn from the media. Scholars like S2ectra ("An Introduction, Fake News, " 2017) derided the conce2t of fake news and argued that if it is fake, then it is not news.  corroborates this and 2oints out that the a22lication of the term "fake" to news is ina22ro2riate because news is a social construct, which already has a lot of economic, social and 2olitical biases, as well as medium constraints. However, one can only assess the world through instances of accurate accounts of events.  states that the finrst ste2 of gettping the com2lexity of news requires 2eo2le to sto2 using the term "fake". What is it that is fake? Thee conce2t is sli22ery and not a22licable, if news is viewed as a social construction.  suggests that rather than call news fake, it should rather be called "lies and garbage".
Contrary to that, scholars like Fry afficrm the existence of fake news and argue that it is an old 2henomenon in news as exem2lifined by the Great Moon Hoax, which was 2ublished in the New York Sun, in 1835, and the fake drawings of S2anish officcial stri2-searching American women, which 2reci2itated the S2anish American War. Besides, the effeect of false narratives is evident in Kano on the 2rimer of the image of Prof. Muhammad Yahuza Bello, which was on Facebook that make 2eo2le embrace the existence of fake news regarding Covid-19 in Kano State.  noted that there are three ty2es of fake news, which include, finrst, serious fabrications, fraudulent re2orting evident in both old and new media which use yellow journalism and sensationalism to increase trafficc for 2rofint. It thrives on falsifincation, fabrication and exaggeration, just the way 2eo2le in Kano believed that the fingures of Covid-19 in the state are overestimated by the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) . Next is hoaxes, which is large-scale dece2tion being deliberately masqueraded as news in social media or mainstream media and ofteen may be 2icked u2 and mistakenly validated by su22osedly credible news outlets causing harm to the victim. Thee last one is humorous fakes, which are 2layful 2ieces of information meant for humour. Thee subty2es of humorous fake news includes satire or news 2arody, which rely on irony and humour to imitate genuine or credible news sources and news game show, where unusual news 2ieces are read aloud for listeners to call in and guess, which is real or fake. Thee awareness of the 2layful intents by the readers ofteen makes them not to take such humour seriously.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW
According to , images a22ear in the media to influuence 2ublic 2erce2tion of issues or situations. For instance, images have come to account for 2ublic 2erce2tions of beauty through the 2ortrayal of women and girls in the media. Studies like S2eno and Aubrey (2018) and  focused on how 2eo2le are oblivious of the fact that such digitized images are used to alter the a22earances of females, resulting in 'adultificcation' of girls and 'youthificcation' of women in advertising. S2ecifincally, research into fake news and digital images ofteen has two outcomes. One is that 2eo2le are unaware of digital mani2ulations of images and cannot diffeerentiate between real and fake digital images. For exam2le,  research suggests that 2eo2le need more awareness through digital literacy because their research found that fake images were more 2rominent on web and social media than other media like television, 2rint and radio.
Yet, other researchers like Cuihua et al.,  discovered that 2eo2le are aware of fake digital imagery. Theey found that intermediary variables like social media ex2erience and general internet skills determined the 2erce2tion of image credibility. Theeir research found that 2eo2le with greater levels of digital imaging ex2erience and general Internet skills were more likely to 2erceive fake images as less credible than 2eo2le with less ex-2erience or skills. However, in that study, credibility of the source and acce2tance were not found to be signifincant.
Another vein of research, which seems to be generating a lot of interest, is on digital image detection techniques, which teaches 2eo2le how to deci-2her fake digital images either via manual detection or electronic devices. For exam2le,  identifined two broad a22roaches for detecting forged images to include active and 2assive (blind) a22roaches. Thee active a22roach relies on '2re-registration or 2re-embedded' information to establish the authenticity of an image. It 2recedes forgery as the image is shielded from being mani2ulated or altered. It is also called digital watermarking. In contrast, the 2assive a22roach works on the assum2tion that even if altered images leave no visual traces of forgery, their embedded statistics may be altered. Theis method, therefore, uses forensic tools to detect the statistics of an image.
As an evolving conce2t, there is no common 2arameter for measuring 2eo2le's awareness of fake digital images. However, the standards of related conce2ts like image credibility 2erce2tion have been used. Theus, awareness has been measured in terms of whether 2eo2le assess the credibility of news stories using the images that accom2any them, or making subjects 2erform image credibility checks to authenticate certain images . Theerefore, the 2receding em2irical reviews are relevant to this study as the literature established the ga2 in the study on digital images on social media and the 2roliferation of fake news on Covid-19, like the one 2revalent among residents of Kano.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING
Thee study is foreground with two theories: Technological Determinism and Perce2tion theories. Technological Determinism Theeory was 2ro2ounded by Marshal McLuhan in 1964. Thee theory modifined Karl Marx's theory of economic determinism to ex2lain the changes that media, as o22osed to economic 2roduction, have made in human society . It argues that media technologies do not only change the environment, they also modify the messages they communicate. Thee medium determines the content of communication; it also holds 2ower to control 2eo2le's 2erce2tion of the world .  ex2lains the challenges that media 2ose to 2eo2le in the 2rocess of sha2ing their thoughts and 2erce2tions. He clearly su22orted his claim by chronicling four stages of the advent of western civilization in tandem with the media communication accessible to include tribal age (the era of oral mode of communication), literate age (age of visual de2endence), 2rint age (wides2read visual de2endence and 2rint) and finnally, the electronic age (ICT era, age of cybers2ace or information su2erhighway) .
McQuaail (2011, 2. 103) ex2lains the theory thus, "each communication technology has a bias to 2articular communication forms, contents, and users. " As such, there is a relationshi2 between the commanding communication technology of an age and vital characteristics of society. Electronic age corres2onds to the emergent information society with all its biases. Theese biases are judged against their effeects on society or suitability on society. Asak and Ohiagu (2013, 2. 83) noted in the same vein that McLuhan "seems to see the electronic media as mechanistic and ca2able of eliciting uncontrollable influuence on the 2eo2le and the society. " Thee theory has been criticised for being a media-centred theory that 2osits single-factor ex2lanation of social change and direct mechanistic effeect from new media technology, ignoring other social and cultural variables. Thee fact that news media do not exist in isolation is evident in their convergence with older media, therefore, it is ina22ro2riate to s2eak of an overbearing medium . Thee theory is also said to be self-o2inionated as it lacks em2irical backing .
However, des2ite the 2receding criticisms, its a22licability to this study is a2t. It is believed that new media technologies that have been made 2ossible through the internet have certain distinguishing features from older media and such features have brought social, cultural and economic changes, which in turn have culminated in a new kind of society. In other words, the interactive nature of communication in this age has brought a lot of changes to traditional mass communication, and fake news is one of the features embedded in the use of technology in 2ro2agating digital images on Covid-19 in Kano.

PERCEPTION THEORY
Perce2tion Theeory was 2ro2ounded by Berelson and Steiner in 1964. It ex2lains the com2lex role of sense organs in 2eo2le's behavioural res2onses to issues . Theey argue that humans are endowed with senses (2erce2tual) organs (as eyes, ears and nose) to hel2 them recognise and 2rocess information in the environment, and such organs serve as in2uts to the brain for information 2rocessing. Thee ex2onents see 2erce2tion as the com2lex 2rocess by which 2eo2le select, organise and inter2ret sensory stimulations into a meaningful and coherent 2icture of the world .  observed that 2erce2tion is the 2rocedure in which humans inter2ret the sensory data, which are generated from human's finve senses. Theese definnitions have most obviously shown that sensory organs are central to the 2rocess of 2erce2tion.
Perce2tion involves two ty2es of influuences, namely structural influuence and functional influuence. Structural influuence is the direct influuence on 2er-ce2tion as derived from the 2hysical ex2osure to certain stimuli. While functional influuence arises from indirect factors like belief system and other variables that influuence ex2osure and introduce bias . Theis theory is relevant to this study because the believability of fake digital images has to do with mis2erce2tions that contradict factual beliefs. Peo2le see what they 2refer to see in images based on the structural and functional influuence.

METHODOLOGY
In order to achieve the goals of the study design, a 2ositivist a22roach of data generation and analysis was ado2ted. Positivist or 2ost-2ositivist as-sum2tions have re2resented the traditional form of research and these as-sum2tions dwell more on quantitative research than qualitative research. Theis worldview is sometimes called the "scientifinc method" or "doing science research". It is also called "em2irical science" and "2ost-2ositivism". Positivists or Post-2ositivists hold a deterministic 2hiloso2hy in which causes (2robably) determine the effeects or the outcomes. Thee 2roblems studied by 2ositivists refluect the need to identify and assess the causes that influuence outcomes, such as digital images on social media and the 2roliferation of fake news on Covid-19 in Kano.
To achieve the success of this design, the survey method was em2loyed. Kano consists of 44 local governments. However, two local governments were selected for the study. Theey include: Tarauni and Kano Munici2al local governments. Thee two local governments were selected because according to the Technical Coordinator, Kano State Task Force on Covid-19, Dr. Tijjani Hussain, Tarauni local government area had the highest number of Covid-19 cases, while Kano Munici2al had the lowest number. Theerefore, one local government with the highest cases and one local government with the lowest cases informed the choice of the selection to determine the influuence of digital images on social media and the 2roliferation of fake news on Covid-19 in the state. Thee res2ondents were reached through cluster, 2robability sam2ling method. Cluster sam2ling was used because of the need to meet the criteria that ranged from education and knowledge of social media, considering the local government with the highest and the lowest cases of the virus.
According to National Bureau of Statistics (2019) the 2o2ulation of Tarauniis = 221,844 and Kano Munici2al is = 371,243. Theerefore, the 2o2ulation of the study is 593,087. A sam2le size of 400 as derived from Taro Yamane's   sam2le size 2rediction table was  A questionnaire guide was used to collect data from res2ondents. Thee questionnaire contained close-ended questions and was administered with the aid of two research assistants. Data gathered from the questionnaire was ana- lysed quantitatively. Frequency tables were used to 2resent measurements using the 5-2oint Likert scale of which the criterion mean or mean cut offe 2oint was 3.00. In the tables, the following terms are a22lied: TVGE (to a very great extent), TGE (to a great extent), TLE (to a little extent), TVLE (to very little extent), TNE (to no extent).Similarly, the codes for the local governments are as follow: Tarauni (TLG) and Kano Munici2al (KMLG) while (NOR) re2resent the number of res2ondents.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT
A total of 400 co2ies of questionnaires were administered to res2ondents in Tarauni and Kano Munici2al local governments. However, only 385 co2ies, which re2resent (96%), were retrieved and found usable for the study as the remaining 15 were not returned. Thee demogra2hic information shows that majorities of the res2ondents were aged between twenty-finve and thirty years, single, males and had at least a secondary school certifincate.
Research Quaestion One: to what extent have the residents of Kano been ex2osed to digital images on Covid-19 that ofteen accom2any fake news in social media? Thee data in Table 1 shows that Kano residents are ex2osed to digital images that accom2any news in social media to a very great extent. Based on the finndings, they read online news every day, 2refer news that are accom2anied by images, share and like news accom2anied by digital images. Thee mean and standard deviation of each item weighted above the mean score of 3 and is ac-ce2table in the study. Thee im2lication of the data im2lies that Kano residents are ex2osed to digital images on Covid-19 in social media, and this ofteen made them 2refer news accom2anied by images as well as share and like news online with images.
Research  Thee data in Table 2 indicates that Kano residents are influuenced by fake news as accom2anied by images. Most of the res2ondents believe that 2ictures do not lie, they do not com2are real images with fake ones and they do not verify the sources of images before sharing. Thee mean of 3.98 shows this. Furthermore, all the items used in testing awareness were rejected as they were found to be below the criterion mean. A majority of the res2ondents do not com2are real 2ictures with fakes; neither do they verify sources before sharing. Theis means that they believe that 2ictures do not lie but lack the ability to com2are real 2ictures with fakes as well as verifincation of sources of the images before sharing.
Research  Thee data in Table 3 shows factors that ofteen make influuential the fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano. All the factors listed were acce2ted as such factors that make fake news accom2anied by images influuential. Thee factors are: eagerness to be the finrst to share images, which has the highest criterion mean of 4.54, and lack of knowledge about image verifincation tools. Theis indicates that all the factors lead to increasing the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano.
Research Queestion Four: which of the social media 2latforms is mostly used in s2reading fake news with images onCovid-19 in Kano?  Thee data in Table 4 examines social media 2latforms that are mostly used in s2reading fake news with images on Covid-19 in Kano. Thee data indicate that fake news with images on Covid-19 are ofteen s2read mostly on Facebook -to a very great extent, which has the highest criterion mean of 4.63; followed by Twittper with 3.76. Based on the finndings, Instagram and YouTube were not used to a great extent in s2reading fake news with images on Covid-19 in the state. Theis means that Kano residents ofteen used Facebook to s2read fake news with images on Covid-19 in the state.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Based on the finndings, the study discovered that Kano residents were ex-2osed to digital images that ofteen accom2any news in social media to a great extent. Theey read news online every day, 2refer news that is accom2anied by images, share and like news online. Thee finndings attpest to the fact of the 2revalence of fake digital images on Covid-19 within the study 2eriod. It demonstrates the influuence of 2revalent media technology thereby validating the as-sum2tion of technology determinism theory. Thee uncontrollable influuence of digital technologies is too overwhelming as observed by .  notes that a study conducted as far back as 2007 has shown that 350 million 2hotogra2hs were available on Flickr with one million increasing daily, while another one showed that Facebook recorded 50 million total u2load of images.
Thee study also found that Kano residents are influuenced by fake news with digital images on Covid-19 to a very great extent. Thee im2lication of the finndings shows that fake news is 2roliferating because social media users are not aware of image mani2ulation devices that enable the 2ro2agation of fake images.  found that 2eo2le are unaware of digital mani2ulations of images and cannot diffeerentiate between real and fake digital images. Sko2 et al.'s (2017) research also suggests that 2eo2le need more awareness through digital literacy because their research found that fake images were more 2rominent on web and social media than other media like television, 2rint, and radio.  found that 2eo2le are fed with fake news in both texts and images because of ignorance. Thee theory of 2erce2tion also validates the finndings in the sense that 2eo2le are ofteen influuenced by what they see or 2erceive to be right or true.
Similarly, there are factors that ofteen lead to the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano. Among these factors are: 2erce2tion or instinct, eagerness to be the finrst to share images and lack of knowledge about image verifincation tools. All the factors used to measure influuence and believability in fake digital images were acce2ted. Thee finndings of the study are in agreement with the finndings of  that fake news s2read "faster, farther, dee2er and more broadly than truth". Furthermore,  suggests that mis2erce2tion ofteen lead to misinformation or cons2iracy beliefs.
Furthermore, data indicate that fake news with images on Covid-19 ofteen s2read mostly on Facebook, followed by Twittper. Theis corres2onds with the finndings of Msughter (2020) that the outbreak of Covid-19 witnessed a digitalized era of un2recedented cam2aigns in Nigeria. Citizens are engaged in using social media during the 2eriod to sensitize 2eo2le and to call on the government to hel2 2revent the s2read of the virus. Facebook a22ears to be among the 2latforms massively used by Nigerians to create awareness on Covid-19 in the country.

CONCLUSION
Thee study on the influuence of digital images on social media and 2roliferation of fake news on Covid-19 among residents of Kano, Nigeria, revealed that Kano residents were broadly ex2osed to digital images that ofteen accom-2anied news in social media. Thee study found out that Kano residents are influuenced by fake news with digital images on Covid-19 to a very great extent and that there are also factors that ofteen lead to the influuence of fake news with digital images on Covid-19 among social media users in Kano. Theis can be attpributed to the deterministic nature of social media, 2articularly, because of their distinguishing attpribute of s2eed. Thee study also discovered that Kano residents lack knowledge about image verifincation tools as well as the negative im2lication of sharing fake digital images on Covid-19, es2ecially attpributing false information on Covid-19 to individuals, using their 2hotogra2hs. Thee study concludes that ignorance and the old belief that 2ictures do not lie are res2onsible for fake news with images on Covid-19 in Kano.