Avatar Identification and Psychological Ownership of Virtual Items: Key Drivers of Post-Purchase Intention in Online Games
PDF
HTML

Keywords

In-Game Post-Purchase Avatar Identification Psychological Ownership Customer Satisfaction Repurchase Intention Word-of-Mouth Intention

How to Cite

An, Y., & Lv, X. (2025). Avatar Identification and Psychological Ownership of Virtual Items: Key Drivers of Post-Purchase Intention in Online Games. Galactica Media: Journal of Media Studies, 7(3), 122-154. https://doi.org/10.46539/gmd.v7i3.590

Abstract

Post-purchase behavioral intentions for virtual goods are a critical yet underexplored aspect of the customer journey, particularly in avatar-mediated environments like video games. Building on avatar identification and psychological ownership theories, this study investigates how the perception of key in-game elements—avatars and virtual items—influences consumer satisfaction, repurchase intention, and positive word-of-mouth. We collected and analyzed survey data from 439 online gamers using structural equation modeling. The findings reveal that avatar identification significantly boosts consumer satisfaction, repurchase intention, and word-of-mouth through the psychological ownership of virtual items. These results emphasize the importance of fostering strong associations between players, avatars, and virtual items to encourage post-purchase behaviors. For game developers, focusing on enhancing these associations can lead to increased player retention and revenue.

https://doi.org/10.46539/gmd.v7i3.590
PDF
HTML

References

Aguirre, E., Mahr, D., Grewal, D., de Ruyter, K., & Wetzels, M. (2015). Unraveling the personalization paradox: The effect of information collection and trust-building strategies on online advertisement effectiveness. Journal of Retailing, 91(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2014.09.005

Anderson, E. W. (1998). Customer satisfaction and word of mouth. Journal of Service Research, 1(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/109467059800100102

Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411

Animesh, A., Pinsonneault, A., Yang, S.-B., & Oh, W. (2011). An odyssey into virtual worlds: Exploring the impacts of technological and spatial environments on intention to purchase virtual products. MIS Quarterly, 35(3), 789–810. https://doi.org/10.2307/23042809

Ayraler Taner, H., Akın Sarı, B., Kulaçoğlu, K. C., Mayalık, A., Mecit, H., Özekicioğlu, K., & Zorbaz, Z. O. (2022). Internet gaming disorder’s correspondence with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and game/in-game purchases among university students. Entertainment Computing, 42, 100486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2022.100486

Bae, J., Kim, S. J., Kim, K. H., & Koo, D.-M. (2019). Affective value of game items: A mood management and selective exposure approach. Internet Research, 29(2), 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-12-2017-0477

Changchit, C., & Klaus, T. (2020). Determinants and impact of online reviews on product satisfaction. Journal of Internet Commerce, 19(1), 82–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332861.2019.1672135

Chen, H., & Chen, H. (2022). Investigating the intention to purchase virtual goods in social networking service games: A self-presentation perspective. Behaviour & Information Technology, 41(6), 1171–1184. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1864017

Cheung, S. F., & Cheung, S.-H. (2024). manymome: An R package for computing the indirect effects, conditional effects, and conditional indirect effects, standardized or unstandardized, and their bootstrap confidence intervals, in many (though not all) models. Behavior Research Methods, 56, 4862–4882. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02224-z

Choi, D., & Kim, J. (2004). Why people continue to play online games: In search of critical design factors to increase customer loyalty to online contents. CyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 7(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493104322820066

Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4(3), 245–264. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0403_01

Davis, R., Lang, B., & Gautam, N. (2013). Modeling utilitarian-hedonic dual mediation (UHDM) in the purchase and use of games. Internet Research, 23(2), 229–256. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241311313330

Dommer, S. L., & Swaminathan, V. (2013). Explaining the endowment effect through ownership: The role of identity, gender, and self-threat. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(5), 1034–1050. https://doi.org/10.1086/666737

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312

Goffman, E. (2023). The presentation of self in everyday life. In Social theory re-wired (3rd ed.). Routledge.

Green, R., Delfabbro, P. H., & King, D. L. (2021). Avatar identification and problematic gaming: The role of self-concept clarity. Addictive Behaviors, 113, 106694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106694

Hamari, J., Hanner, N., & Koivisto, J. (2020). “Why pay premium in freemium services?” A study on perceived value, continued use and purchase intentions in free-to-play games. International Journal of Information Management, 51, 102040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.102040

Hamari, J., & Keronen, L. (2017). Why do people buy virtual goods: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.042

He, H., Li, Y., & Harris, L. (2012). Social identity perspective on brand loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 65(5), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.03.007

Hefner, D., Klimmt, C., & Vorderer, P. (2007). Identification with the player character as determinant of video game enjoyment. In L. Ma, M. Rauterberg, & R. Nakatsu (Eds.), Entertainment computing – ICEC 2007 (pp. 39–48). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74873-1_6

Hsiao, K.-L., & Chen, C.-C. (2016). What drives in-app purchase intention for mobile games? An examination of perceived values and loyalty. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 16, 18‑29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2016.01.001

Iacobucci, D., & Duhachek, A. (2003). Advancing alpha: Measuring reliability with confidence. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(4), 478–487. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP1304_14

Jessica, C. (2023, August 31). Video gaming worldwide—Statistics & Facts. Statista. https://www.statista.com/topics/1680/gaming/

Jung, Y., & Pawlowski, S. D. (2014). Virtual goods, real goals: Exploring means-end goal structures of consumers in social virtual worlds. Information & Management, 51(5), 520–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2014.03.002

Kao, D., Ratan, R., Mousas, C., Joshi, A., & Melcer, E. F. (2022). Audio matters too: How audial avatar customization enhances visual avatar customization. CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3501848

Karahanna, E., Xu, S. X., & Zhang, N. (Andy). (2015). Psychological ownership motivation and use of social media. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 23(2), 185–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/10696679.2015.1002336

Kim, B. (2012). Understanding key factors of users’ intentions to repurchase and recommend digital items in social virtual worlds. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(10), 543‑550. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0128

Kim, C., Lee, S.-G., & Kang, M. (2012). I became an attractive person in the virtual world: Users’ identification with virtual communities and avatars. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1663‑1669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.004

Kim, H., Li, J., & So, K. K. F. (2024). Psychological ownership research in business: A bibliometric overview and future research directions. Journal of Business Research, 174, 114502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114502

Kim, H.-W., Chan, H. C., & Kankanhalli, A. (2012). What motivates people to purchase digital items on virtual community websites? The desire for online self-presentation. Information Systems Research, 23(4), 1232–1245. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1110.0411

Kirk, C. P., & Swain, S. D. (2018). Consumer psychological ownership of digital technology. In J. Peck & S. B. Shu (Eds.), Psychological ownership and consumer behavior (pp. 69–90). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77158-8_5

Kirk, C., Swain, S., & Gaskin, J. (2015). I’m proud of it: Consumer technology appropriation and psychological ownership. The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 23, 166–184.

Klimmt, C., Dorothée, H., & Peter, V. (2009). The video game experience as “true” identification: A theory of enjoyable alterations of players’ self-perception. Communication Theory, 19(4), 351–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01347.x

Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.

Kuo, Y.-F., Wu, C.-M., & Deng, W.-J. (2009). The relationships among service quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction, and post-purchase intention in mobile value-added services. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(4), 887–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.03.003

Lee, J., Lee, J., Lee, H., & Lee, J. (2015). An exploratory study of factors influencing repurchase behaviors toward game items: A field study. Computers in Human Behavior, 53, 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.017

Lee, Y., & Chen, A. N. K. (2011). Usability design and psychological ownership of a virtual world. Journal of Management Information Systems, 28(3), 269–308. https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222280308

Li, D., & Atkinson, L. (2020). The role of psychological ownership in consumer happiness. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 37(6), 629–638. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-09-2019-3420

Li, D. D., Liau, A. K., & Khoo, A. (2013). Player-avatar identification in video gaming: Concept and measurement. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(1), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.09.002

Li, J., Kim, H., & So, K. K. F. (2024). Understanding psychological ownership in access-based consumption through a theory synthesis: An investigation of Airbnb and hotels. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 33(4), 499–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2023.2265352

Liao, G.-Y., Cheng, T. C. E., & Teng, C.-I. (2019). How do avatar attractiveness and customization impact online gamers’ flow and loyalty? Internet Research, 29(2), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-11-2017-0463

Looy, J. V., Courtois, C., Vocht, M. D., & Marez, L. D. (2012). Player identification in online games: Validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMOGs. Media Psychology, 15(2), 197–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2012.674917

Malhotra, N. K., Kim, S. S., & Patil, A. (2006). Common method variance in IS research: A comparison of alternative approaches and a reanalysis of past research. Management Science, 52(12), 1865‑1883. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1060.0597

Mano, H., & Oliver, R. L. (1993). Assessing the dimensionality and structure of the consumption experience: Evaluation, feeling, and satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(3), 451. https://doi.org/10.1086/209361

Mäntymäki, M., & Salo, J. (2013). Purchasing behavior in social virtual worlds: An examination of Habbo Hotel. International Journal of Information Management, 33(2), 282–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2012.12.002

Marder, B., Gattig, D., Collins, E., Pitt, L., Kietzmann, J., & Erz, A. (2019). The avatar’s new clothes: Understanding why players purchase non-functional items in free-to-play games. Computers in Human Behavior, 91, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.006

McCreery, M. P., Schrader, P. G., & Krach, S. K. (2011). Navigating massively multiplayer online games: Evaluating 21st century skills for learning within virtual environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 44(4), 473–493. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.44.4.f

Moon, J., Hossain, Md. D., Sanders, G. L., Garrity, E. J., & Jo, S. (2013). Player commitment to massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs): An integrated model. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 17(4), 7–38. https://doi.org/10.2753/JEC1086-4415170401

Nowak, K. L. (2015). Examining perception and identification in avatar-mediated interaction. In The Handbook of the Psychology of Communication Technology (pp. 87–114). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118426456.ch4

Nowak, K. L., & Fox, J. (2018). Avatars and computer-mediated communication: A review of the definitions, uses, and effects of digital representations on communication. Review of Communication Research, 6, 30–53. https://doi.org/10.12840/issn.2255-4165.2018.06.01.015

Nunnally, J. C. (1978). An overview of psychological measurement. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Clinical Diagnosis of Mental Disorders: A Handbook (pp. 97–146). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2490-4_4

Park, B.-W., & Lee, K. C. (2011). Exploring the value of purchasing online game items. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(6), 2178–2185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.013

Peck, J., & Shu, S. B. (2009). The effect of mere touch on perceived ownership. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(3), 434–447. https://doi.org/10.1086/598614

Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2001). Toward a theory of psychological ownership in organizations. The Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 298. https://doi.org/10.2307/259124

Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2003). The state of psychological ownership: Integrating and extending a century of research. Review of General Psychology, 7(1), 84–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.84

Pierce, J. L., & Peck, J. (2018). The history of psychological ownership and its emergence in consumer psychology. In J. Peck & S. B. Shu (Eds.), Psychological Ownership and Consumer Behavior (pp. 1–18). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77158-8_1

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2017). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Reed, A., Forehand, M. R., Puntoni, S., & Warlop, L. (2012). Identity-based consumer behavior. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(4), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.08.002

Rezaei, S., & Ghodsi, S. S. (2014). Does value matter in playing online game? An empirical study among massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.002

Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02

San-Martin, S., Jimenez, N., Camarero, C., & San-Jose, R. (2020). The path between personality, self‑efficacy, and shopping regarding games apps. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research, 15(2), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-18762020000200105

Shang, R.-A., Chen, Y.-C., & Huang, S.-C. (2012). A private versus a public space: Anonymity and buying decorative symbolic goods for avatars in a virtual world. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2227–2235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.030

Shelton, A. K. (2010). Defining the lines between virtual and real world purchases: Second Life sells, but who’s buying? Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1223–1227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.019

Shu, S. B., & Peck, J. (2011). Psychological ownership and affective reaction: Emotional attachment process variables and the endowment effect. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(4), 439–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.01.002

Shukla, P., & Drennan, J. (2018). Interactive effects of individual- and group-level variables on virtual purchase behavior in online communities. Information & Management, 55(5), 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2018.01.001

Sinclair, G., & Tinson, J. (2017). Psychological ownership and music streaming consumption. Journal of Business Research, 71, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.10.002

Soutter, A. R. B., & Hitchens, M. (2016). The relationship between character identification and flow state within video games. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1030–1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.012

Srinivasan, S. S., Anderson, R., & Ponnavolu, K. (2002). Customer loyalty in e-commerce: An exploration of its antecedents and consequences. Journal of Retailing, 78(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(01)00065-3

Stavropoulos, V., Gomez, R., Mueller, A., Yucel, M., & Griffiths, M. (2020). User-avatar bond profiles: How do they associate with disordered gaming? Addictive Behaviors, 103, 106245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106245

Suh, K.-S., Kim, H., & Suh, E. K. (2011). What if your avatar looks like you? Dual-congruity perspectives for avatar use. MIS Quarterly, 35(3), 711. https://doi.org/10.2307/23042805

Takano, M., & Taka, F. (2022). Fancy avatar identification and behaviors in the virtual world: Preceding avatar customization and succeeding communication. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 6, 100176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100176

Tan, W.-K., & Yang, C.-Y. (2022). An exploration of MMORPG in-game virtual-item contribution to game enjoyment from the perspectives of purchase behavior and psychological ownership. Computers in Human Behavior, 134, 107303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107303

Teng, C.-I. (2017). Impact of avatar identification on online gamer loyalty: Perspectives of social identity and social capital theories. International Journal of Information Management, 37(6), 601‑610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.06.006

Teng, C.-I. (2019). How avatars create identification and loyalty among online gamers. Internet Research, 29(6), 1443–1468. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-05-2018-0222

Teng, C.-I. (2021). How can avatar’s item customizability impact gamer loyalty? Telematics and Informatics, 62, 101626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2021.101626

Teng, C.-I., Dennis, A. R., & Dennis, A. S. (2023). Avatar-mediated communication and social identification. Journal of Management Information Systems, 40(4), 1171–1201. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2023.2267320

Trepte, S., & Reinecke, L. (2010). Avatar creation and video game enjoyment. Journal of Media Psychology, 22(4), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000022

Turkay, S., & Kinzer, C. K. (2014). The effects of avatar-based customization on player identification. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijgcms.2014010101

Wang, L., Sun, Y., & Luo, X. (Robert). (2022). Game affordance, gamer orientation, and in-game purchases: A hedonic–instrumental framework. Information Systems Journal, 32(6), 1097–1125. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12384

Wang, W.-T., & Chang, W.-H. (2014). A study of virtual product consumption from the expectancy disconfirmation and symbolic consumption perspectives. Information Systems Frontiers, 16(5), 887–908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-012-9389-2

Wang, X., Abdelhamid, M., & Sanders, G. L. (2021). Exploring the effects of psychological ownership, gaming motivations, and primary/secondary control on online game addiction. Decision Support Systems, 144, 113512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2021.113512

Wang, X., Butt, A. H., Zhang, Q., Shafique, N., & Ahmad, H. (2021). “Celebrity avatar” feasting on in-game items: A gamers’ play arena. Sage Open, 11(2), 215824402110157. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211015716

Westbrook, R. A. (1987). Product/consumption-based affective responses and postpurchase processes. Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378702400302

Wu, S.-L., & Hsu, C.-P. (2018). Role of authenticity in massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs): Determinants of virtual item purchase intention. Journal of Business Research, 92, 242–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.035

Yi, Y., & La, S. (2004). What influences the relationship between customer satisfaction and repurchase intention? Investigating the effects of adjusted expectations and customer loyalty. Psychology & Marketing, 21(5), 351–373. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20009

Yuan, C., Wang, S., Yu, X., Kim, K. H., & Moon, H. (2021). The influence of flow experience in the augmented reality context on psychological ownership. International Journal of Advertising, 40(6), 922–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2020.1869387

Zhao, Q., Chen, C.-D., & Wang, J.-L. (2016). The effects of psychological ownership and TAM on social media loyalty: An integrated model. Telematics and Informatics, 33(4), 959–972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.02.007

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.